Review on Anti-inflammatory Properties of Mangrove plants

 

P. Lalitha*, V. Sachithanandam, N. S. Swarnakumar, R. Sridhar*

Integrated Island Management Unit, Futuristic Research Division, National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, Anna University Campus, Chennai-600025, Tamil Nadu, India.

 

ABSTRACT:

Mangrove plants have been proven for their value as a source of bioactive compounds with therapeutic potential and mechanism on many diseases. Mangroves plants which are unique in ecological and biological activities, grow in the tidal coasts of tropical and sub-tropical regions. The present review compiled and reviewed the research finding on anti-inflammatory compounds that have been studied on tropical mangrove plants of Indian coastal regions including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A total of 136 research finding published during 1982-2018, were reviewed and out of which, 41 research studies were concerning anti-inflammatory properties of mangroves. This review summarizes the chemical structures, molecular weight, formulae, solvent and their biological activities of the mangroves, that have been proven and published at various times by various researchers. This data suggested that, there is huge potential in the application of anti-inflammatory properties of tropical Indian mangroves. Further, there is a large research gap on studies related extraction of bioactive compounds from mangrove species of Andaman and Nicobar Island (ANI), while comparing the amount of research studies from regions namely Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal and Puducherry. This compilation provides an insight on mangrove based studies for drug discovery related research.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Medicinal plants are widely used for curing different diseases with minimal side effects¹. Herbal medicines inhabit distinct position, right from the ancient times to the present day. Traditional medicines that are used today are not absolutely the same as those that were used in earlier times².

 

India has the abundance of medicinal plants and most of which have been usually used in Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine and by tribal healers for generations. Assessment of medicinal values of mangrove plants lies in the bioactive phytochemical constituents that show a positive physiological effect on the human body such as anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiviral, antimalarial, antidiabetic and anti-hypersensitive^3-4.

 

The word “Mangrove” was generated from a combination of the Portuguese word “Mangue” that means tree and an English word “grove” that means orchard or garden⁵. Other identical terms mentioned include “Mangrove ecosystem,” “Mangrove community,” “Mangrove swamp,” and “coastal woodland”. Mangrove is commonly referred to as a group of salt-tolerant and classic woody plants that have morphological variations. Many species of mangroves are being used to treat diseases such as rheumatism, smallpox, ulcers, hepatitis, leprosy, asthma, snake bites, and toothache, and as purgatives⁶. Since the 18^th century, mangrove plant extracts have been used to treat numerous health disorders. Plant-derived constituents have recently become of great interest owing to their adaptable applications⁵. Mangroves are gorgeous in a wide variability of phytochemicals such as tannins, terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids that have been found to have anti-inflammatory activities⁷.

 

The mangrove plants are very good resources for novel bioactive compounds. In Indian perspectives, diversified with good mangrove forest ecosystem presented in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Puducherry, Diu and Daman, Gulf of Mannar and occupies about 6, 749 sq. km along the coastline, the including Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI)^8-13.

 

1.1 Medicinal use and biological activity of mangrove plants:

India is the third richest country in the world in terms of mangrove species diversity with 46 true mangrove species belonging to 16 families and 22 genera¹⁴. Of which, 27 species have been traditionally used against several diseases along with the Indian coastal communities (Sachithanandam et al., 2019 Unpublished data). Mangroves are a unique group of vascular plants that occur in saline coastal habitats and are known to tolerate extreme environmental conditions. Some mangrove plants are used for a wide range of conditions, including bacterial, fungal and viral diseases.

 

Medicinal plant extracts, known to produce certain bioactive molecules which react with microorganisms in the environment, are known to be less toxic to humans and are environmentally friendly due to less pollutant released during production.

 

Mangroves and its associated plants have also been investigated for their medicinal values. Coastal communities of the Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra use the smoked dry leaves of commonly occurring mangrove species of Avicennia officinalis for relief from asthma¹⁵. Another mangrove plant, Acanthus ilicifolius is useful in the treatment of paralysis, rheumatic pains, and possessing analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and leishmanicidal activities, is rich sources of long-chain alcohols, triterpenes, steroids and triterpenoids, saponins. Stigmasterol, a common plant steroid possessing a different chemical structure with a wide range of biological activities, abundantly present in A. ilicifolius and many other mangrove plants shown to have Hypercholesterolemic effects¹⁶. The leaves and bark of Acanthus ilicifolius, a shrubby plant associated with mangrove community, is found to be useful in nervous disorders^15,17, whereas, the decoction of the plant with sugar candy and cumin is used for indigestion and also for promoting urine and as a cure for dropsy and bilious swellings¹⁸. The rhizome paste of Acrostichum aureum, a mangrove species is found to be useful in the case of ulcers, wounds and boils (Skin infections)¹⁹. Medicinally, the pounded or grated leaves and rhizomes are applied as a paste to wounds, ulcers and boils all over South-East Asia.

 

An important mangrove associate tree species Calophyllum inophyllum, has a wide range such as in skin problems, rheumatism, swellings, ulcers, scabies, ringworm, boils, itch anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial and insecticidal activity. The paste of its seeds are applied for relief from painful joints, the oil is applied in case of rheumatism, scabies and other skin diseases camphor mixed oil is used for application on ringworms and the soap from oil has strong antibacterial and antifungicidal properties¹⁸. The fruits of mangrove tree - Sonneretia caseolaris are used in the preparation of poultice for sprains and swellings²⁰.

 

Kokpol et al.,²¹ reported, the known triterpenes, steroids, and a novel triterpenoid ester have been isolated from Acrostichum aureum and Rhizophora apiculata, a mangrove part of fern and tree, respectively. The extracts of these plants are being used in folklore medicine. In addition, A. aureum is used to treat chest pains, hypertrophy, pharyngitis, purgative and medicament pharyngitis, chest pains, hypertrophy, purgative and medicament²². Further, A. aureum has widespread selection of pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory activity, antioxidant activity, Analgesic activity, anti-fertility activity, and cytotoxicity activity^23-28.

 

Recently, a study was performed on fresh leaves of A. marina and R. stylosa and which showed excellent sources for a large number of phytochemicals speciation²⁹. Triterpenoids from R. mangle possess insecticidal properties and has clinical use in the control of diabetes³⁰. Aqueous extract of the bark of R. apiculata is used as an astringent for diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and also as an antiseptic. The extract is also used to stop bleeding in fresh wounds and for the treatment of chronic typhoid fever. The plant also has been used in the textile industry²¹.

 

S. caseolaris was found to be used traditionally to check hemorrhages, treat piles and it was also used as sprain poultices. This species was also tested for toxicity against mosquito larvae³¹. Harborne³², reported A. marina accumulates glycine, betaine, asparagine and S. alba synthesizes purine nucleotides.

 

Fig 1 - Schematic diagram of Inflammation (Chen et al., 2018).

 

It is suggested that the high levels of proline actually provide the basis of resistance to salt accumulation. Mangroves species included S. griffithii were reported to show remarkable anti-hyperglycemic activity³³. The extracts from the leaves, stems, bark, and roots of mangroves species such as S. apetala have exhibited positive result for antioxidant activity test. It has also been tested for plant growth regulators, growth hormone tests on plants, and antiviral activity test³⁴.

 

Mangrove plants were studied as a promising alternative for the treatment of cigarette smoking hazardous³⁵. Chemicals in cigarette smoke are a leading cause of death to both smokers and non-smokers³⁶. Mangroves are a potential and novel source of anticancer drugs that regulate cancer pathways and stimulate the immune system. Medicinal research on mangroves for treatment of cancer has provided important methods for studying cancer therapy and mechanisms³⁶.

 

2. Inflammation:

Inflammation is a process of the body which responds to injury or infections. Cells of the immune system travel to the site of injury or infection and cause inflammation³⁷. The four sings of inflammation include redness, swelling, pain and warmth (Figure 1). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) (2018) approximately 235 million people suffer from inflammation in the world. Symptomatic relief during the inflammation provides relief to the patients suffering from inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Although there are multiple anti-inflammatory drugs approved in the market, there is an indispensable need for better and novel anti-inflammatory therapeutics with lesser side effects and better efficacy.

 

In the recent decade, the global anti-inflammatory market has been specially driven by factors such as increasing autoimmune and respiratory conditions, new drugs in the pipeline and increasing adoption of anti-inflammatory drugs. The demand for anti-inflammatory drugs has been increasing owing to the emergence of anti-inflammatory biologics that are more targeted, effective and with lesser side effects as compared to conventional/ traditional knowledge-based drugs. Further, the anti-inflammatory therapeutics market is expected to garner $106.1 billion by 2020, registering a CAGR of 5.9% during the forecast period 2015-2020. WHO (2017) has reviewed that more than 75% of the world’s total population depends on herbal or plant-based medication for their primary healthcare needs.

 

Majority of the world’s population trust wholly or partially on a traditional system of medicine for their principle health care needs. A survey conducted by the WHO (1993) found that the traditional medicinal practitioners deals with about 90% patients in Bangladesh, 85% patients in Burma and 80% patients in India³⁸. In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of health products derived from plants in developed as well as emerging countries which resulted in the exponential growth of herbal product worldwide. A rising trend has been observed in research on herbal products³⁹. Mangrove plant are considered an important component of medicinal plants and are distributed widely throughout India⁴⁰. Mangrove plants play an important role in the remedy of fever, sore throat, dysentery, kidney stone, toothache, malaria, constipation fungal infections and rheumatism⁴¹. Mangroves bioactive compounds are considered as a part and parcel of human society to combat diseases⁴². The schematic diagram shows the anti-inflammatory activities of bioactive compounds from traditional knowledge of mangrove plants (Figure 2)⁴³.

 

2.1 NF-κB pathways of inflammation:

The Nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB) transcription factor plays important role in inflammatory, immune response, survival and apoptosis processes. This pathway regulates pro-inflammatory cytokine production and inflammatory cell recruitment, which contribute to the inflammatory response. NF-κB represents a family of inducible transcription factors, which regulates a large group of genes involved in diverse processes of the inflammatory and immune responses⁴⁴. NF-kB is a dominant mediator of pro-inflammatory gene functions and induction in both adaptive and innate immune cells. Besides, these cells express pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that notice numerous microbial components, so this is called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)^45-46. The diverse families of PRRs have different structural properties and respond to various PAMPs and Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), but showed many resemblances in the downstream signal transduction pathways (Figure 3). A related signaling event of the PRRs is activation of the canonical NF-κB pathway^47-50 which is responsible for transcriptional induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and supplementary inflammatory mediators in diverse types of innate immune cells. And then these inflammatory mediators can both directly involved in the induction of inflammation and performance indirectly complete promoting the variation of inflammatory T cells^51-53. Under diverse pathophysiologic conditions, activated macrophages are capable of distinguishing into phenotypically diverse types of states, such as classically activated (M1) and alternatively activated (M2) macrophages^54-55. M1 macrophages are characterized by the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α and chemokines, elaborate in numerous inflammatory processes^56-57. NF-Kb is an inducible transcription factor. After its activation, it can activate the transcription of several genes and thereby regulate inflammation⁵⁸. NF-kB target inflammation not only directly by increasing the production of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules, but also regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, morphogenesis and differentiation. Figure 4 shows the signaling pathways of NF-κB factors during inflammation.

 

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS:

This review was carried out by collecting information on relevant research findings with the help of internet search like Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, Sciences Direct, ResearchGate and other published articles, reports and monographs. A total of 136 published articles have been reviewed and the related information was gathered for this current study in respect of anti-inflammatory research works from Indian coastal region.

 

4. Special focus on ANI Mangrove resources:

ANI the largest archipelago in India which comprises of more than 572 scattered islands, islets and rocky outcrops. The total area of the Andaman group of Islands is 6408 km²while that of Nicobar is 1841 km². The total coastline of the Islands is 1962 km, which accounts for 25% of the country's coastline and encompasses 28% of the total Indian Exclusive Economic Zone.

 

ANI, which accounts for 25% of the country's coastline are endowed with about one-fifth of the country's extensive and diverse mangroves, next only to Sundarbans and Gujarat in the floristic diversity. About 966 sq. km of these Islands are covered by biologically diverse mangroves or in other words, the mangroves constitute 10.85% of the total forest area of these Islands. As far as density and growth are concerned the mangroves in ANIs are probably the best in our country. Mangroves provide major good and services such as protecting the tropical island from erosion and are habitat for numerous species, including commercially and ecologically important fish and crustaceans.

 

The ANI consists of very fragile island ecosystems and consists of pristine marine environment. These ecosystems are very diverse and support very unique flora and fauna. These island groups are a distinct ecoregion and are classified as one of the 12 biogeographical zones of India by Rogers and Panwar (1988). The landscape for large islands emerges from seagrass beds, coral reef or rocky outcrops, to beaches, littoral forest, Andaman slope forests, hilltops, valleys and streams. Of the total forest cover, dense forests has crown density of 40 % constitute 85. 9 % and open forests with a crown density less than 40 % constitute 1. 7%. Mangroves occupy 12 % of the land area of these islands. The mangrove ecosystem belonging to the ecological sensitive areas is protected under the coastal regulation zone (CRZ)/ Island Protection Zone (IPZ) notification 2011, in the ANI. Mangroves cover an area of 929 km² in Andaman and in the Nicobar, the extent is 37 km² ^59-60. The Islanders has been using mangroves as a source of food, medicine, fuel and at times for recreational activities. The coastal communities of these islands rely on these ecosystems for their subsidiary livelihood⁶¹.

 

Among the 572 islands, only 38 are inhabited (population density 46 per sq km). Given the small area, it is amazing to observe sheer six varieties of ethnic groups that comprise the Islands' population. The people of ANI can be categorized into two groups namely aborigines and settlers. Six aboriginal tribes live in these Islands. In the Andaman group of Islands, four tribes live namely Great Andamanese, Jarawas, Onges and Sentinelese, all belonging to the Negrito race. In the Nicobar group of Islands the Nicobarese and the Shompens live, who belong to the Mongoloid race.

 

4.1 Traditionally used mangrove plants in tribal areas:

An area of 513.70 km² along the west coast of South Andaman Island is notified as a tribal reserve for the Jarawa people. This reserve extends north along the same coast into Middle Andaman Island, extending the reserve for another 338. 69 km². A 5 km distance into the sea from the high tide line right along the entire stretch of the Jarawa Reserve is also notified as part of the reserve. Strait Island, 6.01 km² in area, on the east coast of Middle Andaman Island supports a population of 29 of the last remaining Great Andamanese people.

 

The entire 24 Islands of Nicobar is notified as tribal areas; only 1, 499.65 ha along the east coast from Campbell bay and up to 35 km is outside the Tribal Area is inhabited by ex-servicemen, traders, government departments and the settlers. Great Nicobar has a total area of 1044. 54 km² of which 853.19 km² is tribal reserve, both for the 380 Shompen and the Nicobarese tribes. In ANI, 38 true mangrove species belonging to 19 genera and 13 families have been documented (though without comprehensive distribution account, description of vegetative characters and photographs). Among them, 29 are true mangroves and 14 are mangroves associated species which have been extensively used in a traditional treatment for several diseases in these Islands by coastal communities as well as tribal population (Table 1).

 

5. Study on anti-inflammatory activity of mangrove plants in India:

The mangrove plant extracts have been found to be rich sources of proven activities against human, animal and plant pathogens and have been used in folklore medicines¹⁶. Mangrove plants often produce unique secondary metabolites under stressful conditions.

 

Table 1 Traditionally used mangrove species in ANI coastal communities

S. No	Name of the mangrove species	Common Name	Traditional treatment
1	Cynometra iripa	Wrinkle pod mangrove	Tribes extract oil from the seeds to treat against cholera
2	Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea	Wild Ixora	Leaf extracts are known to be helpful for stomach aches.
3	Avicennia marina	White mangrove/ Grey mangrove	Leaves used to treat burns. Leaves used in treatment of rheumatism, small pox, ulcers, fodder for livestock
4	A. officinalis	Grey mangrove	Leaves used in treatment of smallpox, joint pain, urinary disorders, bronchial asthma, stomach disorders, hepatitis, leprosy and as an aphrodisiac, diuretic Fruits are plastered onto boils. The bark is used to treat Scabies. The cut bark oozes a green resin that is mixed with bananas and taken as a contraceptive. Seed is good for treating ulcers.
5	Excoecaria agallocha	Blind your eye mangrove	Treatment of epilepsy, conjunctivitis, dermatitis, haematuria, leprosy, toothache, swelling of hands and feet; flatulence; epilepsy and is anti-inflammation, uterotonic, purgative, and used as a piscicide, dart poison, skin irritant Sap as an ingredient in arrow poison using by tribal communities
6	Bruguiera cylindrica	Small leafed orange mangrove	Leaves are used to control blood pressure and hepatitis. Essences are extracted by squeezing the pneumatophores and used to make fragrances.
7	B. gymnorrhiza	Large leafed orange mangrove	Leaves used for constipation disorders Used as a medicine for eye ailment and in preparation of adhesive.
8	B. parviflora	Small leafed orange mangrove	The germinating embryo is used as a vegetable
9	Pemphis acidula	Iron wood	Bark is used as an abortifacient and stomatitis, antibacterial, antioxidant
10	B. sexangula	Large leafed orange mangrove	Tender leaves using for stomach pain, hypocotyls are consumed as vegetables.
11	Ceriops tagal	Yellow mangrove	Bark is excellent for tanning and skin related issue
12	R. apiculata	Tall stilted red mangrove	Astringent, antiseptic, insecticide, used for treatment of diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, typhoid, hepatitis, and amoebiasis The bark is rich in tannin, used for tanning, dyeing and stomach pain related problems and bone fractures and joint pain cure
13	R. mucronata	Long fruited stilted red mangrove	Leaves used in the- treatment of elephantiasis, haematoma, hepatitis, ulcers, and as a febrifuge and bark is-powerful astringent and used for diabetes and hemorrhage The bark is rich in tannin, used for tanning and dyeing and in the treatment of haematuria.
14	R. lamarckii	Spider mangrove	Leaves used in the treatment of Hepatitis
15	Heritiera littoralis	Looking glass mangrove	Seeds edible. Once tribes prepare a kind of tea from the leaves. Twigs are used as tooth-brush. Seeds are used in cures for diarrhoea and dysentery
16	Lumnitzera littorea	Black mangrove	Leaves used as a remedy for sprue
17	L. racemosa	Black mangrove	Anti-fertility, treatment of asthma, diabetes, and snakebite. Bark is used for tanning.
18	Sonneratia alba	Mangrove apple	Leaves used in the treatment of Hepatitis
19	S. caseolaris	Mangrove apple	Fruit is edible. Bark contains moderate amount of tannin and is used as timber. Pneumatophores are used to make wooden shoes. Stem barks using as Antioxidant agent
20	Aegiceras corniculatum	River mangrove	Cure for asthma, diabetes type II, rheumatism Seeds and bark contain a toxic substance named Saponin which is used as a 'fish poison', i.e., to stun fish and scoop by tribal people
21	Xylocarpus granatum	Cannon ball mangrove	Bark used in the treatment of fever, malaria, cholera, dysentery, insect bite Bark used for tanning
22	X.moluccensis	Cedar mangrove	Treat malaria fever
23	A. ebracteatus	Holly mangrove	Pounded seeds are used to cure boils and to treat internal worms. Leaves relieve rheumatism. Juice of leaves is reputed to prevent hair loss and fruit is pounded and used as a blood purifier and dressing for burns
24	A. ilicifolius	Holly mangrove	Pounded fruits are used as a blood purifier and dressing for burns. Leaves relieve rheumatism. A compress of the fruit or roots is applied in case of snake bites, kidney stones, smallpox, ulcer and skin diseases. Seeds are used to treat internal worms. Also used as fodder.
25	A. volubilis	Holly mangrove	Powdered seeds are taken with water as a blood cleansing medicine and treatment against ulcers.
26	Nypa fruticans	Mangrove palm	Diabetes, snakebite Alcoholic drinks and vinegar are prepared from the sap. Fruits are eaten by local people.
27	Phoenix paludosa	Mangrove date palm	Anti-oxidant agent applying on wound and heat boils on face and skin
28	A. alba	Api-Api mangrove	Resinous substance used for birth control
29	C. decandra	-	Cure for hepatitis, ulcers. The bark is astringent. A decoction is used to treat haemorrhages
	Mangroves Associates
30	Crinum defixum	Mangrove Lily	Traditional medicine as a purgative and for treating foot sores. Crushed leaves are mixed with honey and applied to wounds and abscesses.
31	Drynaria quercifolia	Oak Leaf Fern	The fresh or dried rhizome in decoction is used in haemoptysis. Leaves are used as poultices.
32	A. aureum	Golden Leather Fern	Pounded rhizomes are used to treat wounds and boils
33	Flagellaria indica	Mangrove Whip Vine	Young stems and leaves are used as shampoo to combat baldness and various medicinal applications have been reported such as using leaves as a plaster on wounds.
34	Derris trifoliata	Three leaved derris	The leaves contain the chemical compound rotenone, a poison that kills insects and earthworms. Rotenone clogs the gills of fishes and hence, root powder is used as a piscicide for removing weed fishes from culture ponds. The plant is also used to produce cordage
35	Wedelia biflora	Sea Daisy	Leaves are vulnerary and antiscabious.
36	Abrus precatorius	Rosary Pea	The root is used against abdominal discomfort, gonorrhoea, jaundice, tetanus and to prevent rabies.
37	Caesalpinia bonduc	Nicker Bean	Root is used to treat stomach pain and to stimulate the appetite.
38	C. crista	Fever Nut	Seeds are used to treat malaria and parasitic worms and leaves are used to treat Hepatitis -A
39	Cassytha filiformis	Cascutta/Devil's Gut	Used as an anti-inflammatory. Also regularizes digestive system and induces appetite, promotes hair growth and helps in removing toxins from the body
40	Ipomea pes-caprae	Morning Glory	The seeds are reportedly a good remedy for stomach ache, headache and cramp. Leaves are made into a poultice and applied to swellings, bois, causes dermatitis, and ulcers. Juice of stems is used to treat bites and stings and jellyfish sting
41	I. sepiara	Purple Heart Glory	Seeds are used against ulcer. Juice of stems is used to treat bites.
42	Clerodendrum inerme	Glory Bower	Leaves - as a febrifugal and uterine stimulant, a pest control agent and antiseptic, to arrest bleeding, treatment of asthma, hepatitis, ringworm, stomach pains Used as medicine for a variety of ailments.
43	Morinda citrifolia	Indian Mulberry/Noni	Leaves, flowers, fruit, bark to treat eye problems, skin wounds and abscesses, gum and throat problems, respiratory ailments, constipation. Heated leaves applied to the chest relieve coughs and nausea. Juice of the leaves is taken for arthritis. The fruit is taken for asthma and dysentry. Pounded unripe fruit is mixed with salt and applied to cuts and broken bones; ripe fruit is used to draw out pus from an infected boil. Juices of over-ripe fruits are taken to regulate menstrual flow. Fruits used to treat head lice. Other exotic diseases treated with the plant include diabetes and venereal diseases.

 

Table 2 Anti-inflammatory properties of bioactive compounds from Indian mangroves

S. No.	Chemical structure	Description	Reference
1	Olean-18(19)-en-3β-yl-(3, 6-dimethyl-3E, 6Z-dienoate)	Source: R. mucronata (Leaf) Mole. For: C40H64O2 Mol. Wt: 577.4992 Solvent: Methanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[66]
2.	(13α)-27-frido-olean-14(15)-en-(17α)-furanyl-3β-ol	Source: R. mucronata (Leaf) Mole. For: C33H50O2 Mol. Wt: 479.3890 Solvent: Methanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[66]
3	4E, 8Z)-3, 3a, 6, 7-tetrahydro-3, 9-dimethyl-5-(6-methylheptan-2-yl) cycloocta[b]	Source: R. mucronata (Leaf) Mole. For: C20H32O2 Mol. Wt: 304.2638 Solvent: Methanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[67]
4.	(35E)-1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 6-icosahydro-4, 4, 8b, 10, 14, 17, 20, 20-octamethylpicen-3-yl-34, 35-dimethyloct-31-enoate	Source: R. mucronata (Leaf) Mole. For: C40H66O2 Mol. Wt: 579.5264 Solvent: Methanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[67]
5.	Ovaliflavanone	Source: D. scandens (Leaf) Mole. For: C25H28O3 Mol. Wt: 376.496 Solvent: Chloroform Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[133]
6.	Lupinifolin	Source: D. scandens (Leaf) Mole. For: C25H26O5 Mol. Wt: 408.49 Solvent: Chloroform Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[133]

 

Therefore, it is not surprising that mangrove plants, facing various ecological and environmental stresses, biosynthesize a wide range of secondary metabolites with potential medicinal importance⁶². The present literature survey has revealed that mangrove plants contain a wide range of bioactive compounds showing anti-inflammatory activity (Table 2-3).

 

Prabhu et al.,⁶³ enumerated methanolic extract of R. apiculata showed anti-inflammatory activity against B16F10 melanoma cells in BALB/c mice. Results revealed that R. apiculata extract on carrageenan-induced paw edema in non-tumor-bearing hosts. The extract at 10 mg/kg Body Weight, for 10 consecutive days, displayed anti-inflammatory properties, as showed by a reduction in paw size at 4 h post-carageenan injection (0.39 ± 0.04 mm) relative to that seen in control (no extract) mice (0.47 ± 0.03 mm) group animals on the same hour.

 

Krishnamoorthy et al⁶⁴, studied antioxidant activities of two Indian mangrove plants B. cylindrical and C. decandrai collected from Pichavaram mangroves and they extracted total phenolics and total flavonoid compounds which showed strong antioxidant activities than that of the reference standard, butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT).

 

Kumar et al.⁶⁵, revealed an anti-inflammatory activity of methanolic leaf extracted from A. ilicifolius collected from Sundarban mangrove ecosystem, which significantly inhibited both COX 1(1g/ml; 99%) and COX 2 (1g/ml; 87%) enzymes. However, the standard drugs such as acetylsalicylic acid (18 g/ml) produced 97% inhibition of COX 1 and that of rofecoxib (3.14 g/ml) was found to be 95% for COX 2.

 

Fig 2 - Anti-inflammatory activities of bioactive compounds from traditional knowledge of mangrove plants.

 

The chloroform extract of R. carrageenan leaves was reported to have two anti-inflammatory compound Olean-18(19)-en-3β-yl-(3, 6-dimethyl-3E, 6Z-dienoate) and (13α)-27-frido-olean-14(15)-en-(17α)-furanyl-3β-ol. The fraction CF4 obtained after the chromatographic fraction of the crude displayed significantly greater COX2 (IC₅₀1. 15mg/ml) and 5-LOX (0.87mg/ml) inhibition activities than the crude (IC₅₀ 1.38 and 1.16 mg, respectively). Further, CF10 showed COX-2 (IC₅₀ 1.36mg/ml) and 5-LOX (IC₅₀ 0.98mg/ml) and compared to other CF12 exhibited COX-2 (IC₅₀ 1.12mg/ml) and 5-COX (IC₅₀ 0.90mg/ml) as the potentially sub-fraction possessing significantly greater anti-inflammatory activities⁶⁶. Raola et al⁶⁷ revealed that the methanolic leaf extract of R. mucronata showed two terpenoids one with an extended Guaiane Sesquiterpenoid and other containing C40 prenylated oleanane-type triterpenoid which is frame-work with the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.

 

The methanol extract of R. mucronata of Kundapur coast, Karnataka at a dose-dependent 250 and 500mg/kg (b.w) possess significant anti-inflammatory activity in formalin-induced paw edema, sub-acute sponge pellet induced inflammation and chronic adjuvant-induced arthritis – immunological method in rats. The extracts were found to be nontoxic in acute toxicity study⁶⁸.

 

 

Babuselvam et al.⁶⁹, discussed an anti-inflammatory activity of latex, leaves and seeds extracts of two concentrations of E. agallocha mangrove sample collected from Pichavaram mangrove ecosystem, produced a significant inhibition of carrageenin-induced rat paw edema at 3^rd hour (p< 0.005) as compared to the control groups (rats), causing 62.15%, 63.15%, and 69.69% respectively. Intraperitoneal administration of aspirin (100mg/Kg) caused dose-dependent inhibition of edema. Crude extracts of latex, leaves and seed of E. agallocha (250, 500mg/kg), the extracts of latex (250 mg/kg, IC₅₀ 55.26; 500mg/kg, IC₅₀ 57.89), leaves (250 mg/kg, IC₅₀ 52.63; 500mg/kg, IC₅₀ 60.52) and seed (250 mg/kg, IC₅₀, 55.16; 500mg/kg, IC₅₀, 60.61) exhibited significant (P<0.01) reductions in paw edema volume of rats and standard drug aspirin (100mg/Kg) showed decreased granuloma tissue and increased percentage of inhibition.

 

Kumari et al.⁷⁰ discussed with methanolic leaf extract of R. mucronata of southeast coast of India, which significantly showed anti-inflammatory activity at the concentration of 400 mg comparable to the standard drug diclofenac sodium.

 

There was a relative study conducted by Ray et al.⁷¹, who collected mangrove samples of Sundarban mangrove ecosystem and noticed that R. mucronata leaves revealed an in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity in RAW264.7 cell line by MTT assay. The effect of the ethanolic extract of R. mucronata leaves (25, 50, 100, 200 and 400µg/ml) on the viability of unstimulated RAW264.7 cells was tested using the MTT assay. Treatment with RME analysis had no significant inhibition of cell growth, indicating these doses were nontoxic to RAW264.7 cells.

 

Table 3 Anti-inflammatory properties of pure bioactive compounds from Worldwide mangroves

S. No.	Chemical structure	Description	Reference
1.	Agallochaol K	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mole. For: C20H30O3 Mol. Wt: 341.2096 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
2.	Agallochaol O	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mol. For: C29H36O5 Mol. Wt: 487.2458 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
3.	Agallochaol P	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mole. For: C20H30O3 Mol. Wt: 318.46 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
4.	Agallochaol Q	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mole. For: C20H36O2 Mol. Wt: 325.2140 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
5.	ent-17-hydroxykaur-15-en-3-one	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mole. For: C20H30O3 Mol. Wt: 318.457 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
6.	ent-kaur-15-en-3b	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mole. For: C20H30O2 Mol. Wt: 302.458 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
7.	17-diol, ent-15, 18-dihydroxylabd-8, 13E-diene	Source: E. agallocha (Stem and Twigs) Mole. For: C21H34O2 Mol. Wt: 318.50 Solvent: Ethanol Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[128]
8.	Ergosterol peroxide	Source: H. littoralis (Bark) Mole. For: C28H44O3 Mol. Wt: 428.657 Solvent: Hexane and acetone Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[129]
9.	6-α-hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one	Source: H. littoralis (Bark) Mole. For: C29H48O2 Mol. Wt: 428.7 Solvent: Hexane and acetone Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[129]
10.	Stigmast-4-en-3-one	Source: H. littoralis (Bark) Mole. For: C29H48O Mol. Wt: 412.702 Solvent: Hexane and acetone Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[129]
11.	Eugenol	Source: I. pes-caprae (Leaf) Mole. For: C10H12O2 Mol. Wt: 164.2 Solvent: Petroleum ether Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[127]
12.	4-vinyl-guaiacol	Source: I. pes-caprae (Leaf) Mole. For: C9H10O2 Mol. Wt: 150.177 Solvent: Petroleum ether Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[127]
13.	3-γ, γ- dimethylallylweighteone,	Source: D. scandens (Stem) Mole. For: C25H26O5 Mol. Wt: 406.48 Solvent: Water Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[126]
14.	Scandium	Source: D. scandens (Stem) Mole. For: C26H26O6 Mol. Wt: 434.488 Solvent: Water Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[126]
15.	Genistein	Source: D. scandens (Stem) Mole. For: C15H10O5 Mol. Wt: 270.241 Solvent: Water Biological activity: Anti-inflammatory	[126]

 

 

Fig 3 - Inducers of inflammation (Mogensen et al., 2009; Newton et al., 2012).

 

An interesting anti-inflammatory activity was documented in fruit the body of S. alba which depicted a higher activity in membrane stabilization, protein denaturation and protease inhibition. Finally, the results confirmed that, among the selected parts of mangroves ethanolic fruits extracts of S. alba collected from Bhatye beach area located at Ratnagiri district, Maharastra coast exhibited more potent anti-inflammatory activities⁷². Recently, a silver nanoparticle synthesized analysis was carried out to detect the anti-inflammatory compounds from A. marina mangrove samples, collected from the Muthupet mangrove. The leaves extracts of A. marina which showed anti-inflammatory activity, protein denaturation inhibitory, anti-proteinase inhibitory activity⁷³. Comparative studies of anti-inflammatory activity of crude extracts of different mangrove plants in national and international levels are summarized in Table 4-5.

 

 

 

 

Table 4 Anti-inflammatory activities of crude extracts produced from mangrove plants in India

Sl. No	Family	Name of the plant	Plant parts	Activity	References
1.	Acanthaceae	A. ilicifolius	Leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[65, 83]
2.	Euphorbiaceae	E. agallocha	Leaf and Seed extract	Anti-inflammatory	[69]
3.	Fabaceae	Pongamia pinnata P. pinnata	Leaf extract Seed extract	Anti-inflammatory Anti-inflammatory	[130-132]
4.	Lythraceae	S. alba	Fruit extract	Anti-inflammatory	[71]
5.	Acanthaceae	A. marina	Leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[73]
6.	Rhizophoraceae	R. mucronata R. apiculata	Whole plant extract; Leaf; Bark	Anti-inflammatory	[63, 66-68, 70, 72]
7.	Fabaceae	D. scandens	Leaf and Root	Anti-inflammatory	[134]

 

Table 5 Anti-inflammatory activities of crude extracts produced from mangrove plants in Worldwide

Sl. No	Family	Name of the plant	Plant parts	Activity	References
1.	Myrsinaceae	A. corniculatum	Stem extract	Anti-inflammatory	[112]
2.	Lecythidaceae	B. racemosa	Leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[134]
3.	Leguminosae	C. mimosoides	Root extract	Anti-inflammatory	[135]
4.	Euphorbiaceae	E. agallocha	Stem extract	Anti-inflammatory	[128]
5.	Tamaricaceae	Tamarix indica	Root extract	Anti-inflammatory	[39]
6.	Fabaceae	D.scandens	Stem extract	Anti-inflammatory	[126]
7.	Convolvulaceae	I. imperati	Leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[136] [127]
		I. pes- caprare
8.	Sterculiaceae	H.littoralis	Bark extract	Anti-inflammatory	[129]
9.	Rhizophoraceae	C. decandra	Bark extract	Anti-inflammatory	[24]
10.	Asteraceae	Launaea sarmentosa	Stem, bark and leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[98]
11.	Plumbaginaceae	Aegialitis rotundifolia	Stem, bark and leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[98]
12.	Myrsinaceae	A. corniculatum	Stem	Anti-inflammatory	[111]
13.	Acanthaceae	A. marina	Leaf extract	Anti-inflammatory	[102]

 

 

Fig 4 - NF-κB pathways of inflammation (Mosser et al., 2003).

 

 

Fig 5 - Major mangrove forests habitat around the Indian coast.

 

6. Status of biological study using marine flora in ANI:

Mangrove plants have been used for their medicinal properties by the coastal communities of India for the treatment of inflammation, painful arthritis, antioxidant, diabetes, hepato-protective actions, asthma, tumor, rheumatism, anti-nociceptive and antipyretic activity^63-66,71. However, in the Indian scenario, only limited studies have been conducted for the isolation and purification of bioactive compounds from mangroves plants. ANI are endowed with rich marine biodiversity/ mangroves plants, very few studies have been carried out to explore the marine bioactive compounds from these Islands. There was few studies conducted in ANI for the antimicrobial activity (multi-drug resistant) of Vibrio harveyi and V. compellii against leaf extract of R. mucronata of mangroves plants⁷⁴.

 

Chander et al.⁷⁵, found that the methanol extract of seaweed, Padina gymnospora collected from South Andaman island showed antimicrobial activity against selected human pathogens namely E. coli, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, B.cereus, S. typhi, S. flexneri, P. aeruginosa, K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilis, Candida albican and Aspergillus niger. Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus thuringiensis subspisrae lensis isolated from Andaman mangroves by Geeth et al.⁷⁶, showed mosquitocidal activity against the larvae and pupae of Anopheles stephensi, Culexquinque fasciatus and Aedesae gypti.

 

Suman et al.⁷⁷ isolated Pseudoceratina purpurea from ANI possessed secondary metabolites which showed antibacterial activities against Klebsiella pneumonia and B. licheniformis. B. licheniform (associated bacteria) collected from the marine sponge from ANI displayed the potential of surfactant for use in bioremediation of hydrocarbons in a marine environment and for enhanced oil recovery.

 

 

Fig 6 - Research gaps of bioactivity studies of mangrove species in coastal states of India.

 

Actinobacterial isolated from the marine sediments collected from ANI exhibited a substantial amount of antibacterial activity against human pathogens and found to produce industrially applicable enzymes namely amylase, protease, gelatinase, lipase, DNase, cellulase, urease and phosphatase reported by Meena et al.⁷⁸. Further, Krishnan et al.⁷⁹ isolated marine sponge-associated bacterial strain from ANI which showed antimicrobial activity against selected human, animal and plant pathogens such as Aeromonas hydrophila, B. subtilis, Citrobacter sp., Enterococcus durans, Streptococcus lentus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Veillonella sp., Pseudmonas sp., and Rolstonia solanacearum.

 

7. Research gap:

The objective of this review paper was to assess the current status on studies pertaining to anti-inflammatory of mangroves from context and to suggest for future studies. Based on the literature survey it is found that, there is a comprehensive research on mangroves plants with special reference to anti-inflammatory compounds needed to be studied from coastal regions of India⁶⁶ (Table 6; Figure 5).

 

Table 6 Statewise estimate of mangroves

S.No.	States/ UT	Areas (Sq. Km.)
1	Gujarat	1, 140
2	Maharashtra	304
3	Goa	26
4	Karnataka	10
5	Kerala	9
6	Tamil Nadu	49
7	Andhra Pradesh	404
8	Odisha	243
9	West Bengal	2, 114
10	ANI	617
11	Puducherry	2
12	Diu and Daman	3
	Total	4, 921

 

There is a large gap in research work on anti-inflammatory studies on mangroves plants of India which also include ANI. Research gap inferred on the basis of descriptive analysis depicted in Figure 6. Descriptive analysis data suggested that most of the studies were conducted in Tamil Nadu coast, followed Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Gujarat and Karnataka. However, along with other studies, in ANI there is a need for piloting more research work on anti-inflammatory as there are no reports for the same from the pristine environment. Henceforth, this short review gives an insight into the research works that have been conducted for the isolation and identification of anti-inflammatory compounds from mangroves plants in India. This form of review work contributes to widening the existing knowledge on a important topic like anti-inflammatory and related drug discovery for the future studies.

 

10. CONCLUSIONS:

This review summarized the traditional uses and their bioactive potential of mangrove plants. The pharmacological potential of the mangroves from Indian region still remains largely unexplored especially from island ecosystem of ANI. This review shows that, the mangrove species of Rhizophora sp., Acanthus sp., Excoecaria sp., Sonneratia alba., and Avicennia sp., are considered to be the highly potential candidates for the blockbuster of anti-inflammatory activities against skin diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, fungal infections, and hepatitis, etc., and they have been reported for the various pharmacological activities including chronic inflammatory of anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial and antidiabetic activities. However, there is a need for initiating the systematic research study on biomedical important especially anti-inflammatory activities of mangroves species of ANI, as it is considered as an untouched and unexplored area of above-mentioned study.

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

We thank the Director, National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM), for providing the facilities for this study. We earnestly acknowledge our gratitude to the Forest Department, Andaman and Nicobar Islands for providing data on mangroves of ANI and facilities for the field survey and committee members who reviewing our article and recommendation for the publication. Views expressed are of the authors only and not necessarily of the affiliated organizations.

 

Funding information:

This study was financially and technically supported by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, and the World Bank under the India ICZM Project.

 

REFERENCES:

1.      Sofowora A, Ogunbodede E, and Onayade A, The role and place of medicinal plants in the strategies for disease prevention. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med 2013; 10: 210-229.

2.      Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig, EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Stuppner H, Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33: 1582-1614.

3.      Bandaranayake WM. Traditional and medicinal uses of mangroves. Mangroves and Salt Marshes 2 1998; 2: 133-148.

4.      Kathiresan K, Bingham BL, Biology of mangroves and mangrove ecosystems. Adv Mar Biol 2001; 40: 81-251.

5.      Shelar P, Reddy S, Shelar G, Reddy V. Medicinal value of mangroves and its antimicrobial properties—a review. Continental J Fish Aqua Scien 2012; 6:26-37.

6.      Prabhakaran J, Kavitha D Ethnomedicinal importance of Mangrove species of Pitchavaram. J Pharm Biomed Sci 2012; 3:611-614

7.      Panda S, Thatoi H, Dutta S. Antibacterial activity and phytochemical screening of leaf and bark extracts of Vitexnegundo I. from Similipal biosphere reserve, Orissa. J Med Plant Res 2009: 3:294-300.

8.      Kathiresan K, Rajendran N. Mangrove ecosystem in the Indian Ocean region. Ind Jour Mar Sci 2005; 34:104-113.

9.      Mandal SC, Jana GK, Das S, Sahu R, Venkidesh R, Dewanjee S. Hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities of Smilax chinensis l. root. Pharmacologyonline 2008; 2:529-535.

10.   Upadhyaya HD, Dwivedi SL, Baun M, Varshney RK, Udupa SM, Gowda CLL, Hoisington D and Singh S. Genetic structure, diversity and allelic richness in composite collection and reference set in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) BMC plant Bio 2008a; 8:106.

11.   Upadhyaya HD, Pundir RPS, Gowda CLL, Reddy VG and Singh S. Establishing a core collection of foxtails millet to enhance the utilization of germplasm of an underutilized crop. Plant Genet Resour-C 2008b; 7:177-184.

12.   Thatoi HN, Panda SK, Rath SK and Dutta SK. Antimicrobial activity and ethnomeidcinal uses of some medicinal plant from Similipal Biosphere reserve, Orissa. Asian J Plant Sci 2008; 7:260-267.

13.   Mishra OP, Zhao D, Ghosh C, Wang Z, Singh OP, Ghosh B, Mukherjee KK, Saha DK, Chakrabortty GK and Gaonkar, SG. Role of crustal heterogeneity beneath Andaman Nicobar Islands and its implications for coastal hazard: Natural Hazards, 2011; 57:51-64.

14.   Ragavan P, Mandal RN. Status of Indian Mangroves. Oceanogr Fish Open Access J 2018; 7:555-718.

15.   Banerjee D, Chakrabarti S, Hazra A K, Banerjee S, Ray J, and Mukherjee B. Antioxidant activity and total phenolics of some mangroves in Sundarbans. Afr J Biotechnol 2008; 7:805–810

16.   Bandaranayake WM. Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangrove plants. Wetl Ecol Manag. 2002; 10:421–452.

17.   Kothari MJ and Rao KM. Mangroves of Goa, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkatta, 2002.

18.   Wealth of India (Raw Materials) Vol. I. 1985. Acacia ferruginea, CSIR, New Delhi, 20003; 32-33.

19.   Naskar K and Mandal R. Ecology and Biodiversity of Indian Mangroves. Daya Publishing House, New Delhi, 1999.

20.   Hajra PK and Sanjappa M (eds.): Fascicle 22, Fascicles of Flora of India. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 1996.

21.   Kokpol U, Miles D, Payne A, Chittawong V. Chemical constituents and bioactive compounds from mangrove plants. In: Atta-ur-Rahman (ed) Studies in natural products chemistry, vol 7. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990; 175-195.

22.   Uddin SJ et al. Evaluation of cytotoxic activity of patriscabratine, tetracosane and various flavonoids isolated from the Bangladeshi medicinal plant Acrostichum aureum. Pharma Biol 2012; 50:1276-80.

23.   Dhar JD et al., Post-coital antifertility activity of marine plant Acrostichum aureum L in rats. Indian J Med Res 1992; 96:150-152.

24.   Hossain H, Moniruzzaman S, Nimmi I, Kawsar H, Hossain A, Islam A, and Jahan IA. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of the ethanolic extract of Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou bark. Orient Pharm Exp Med 2011; 11:215-220.

25.   Hossain H et al. Anti-inflammatory activity of the ethanolic extract of Acrostichum aureum (Linn.) root. Bangladesh J Pharmacol 2011; 14:107-109.

26.   Choudhary N, et al. An overview of advances in the standardization of herbal drugs. J Pharm Res 2011; 2:55-70.

27.   Khan SA et al. Assessment of antioxidant and analgesic activity of Acrostichum aureum Linn. (Family- Pteridaceae). Pharmacologyonline, 2013; 1:166-171.

28.   Uddin SJ et al. (2S, 3S)-sulfated pterosin C, a cytotoxic sesquiterpene from the Bangladeshi mangrove fern Acrostichum aureum. J Nat Prod 2011; 74:2010-2013.

29.   Mouafi F, Abdel-Aziz SM, Bashir A, Amal AF. Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of c (Avicenna marina and Rhizophora stylosa) against some pathogens. World Appl Sci J 2014; 29:547-554.

30.   Neelam Garg, Shadia Mohammad abdel-aziz, Abhinav Aeron. Microbes in Food and Health. 1^st Edition, 2016.

31.   Devi P, Solimabi W, D’Souza L, Kamat, SY. Toxic effects of coastal and marine plant extracts on mosquito larvae. Botanica Marina 1997; 40:533-535.

32.   Harborne JB. Introduction to ecological biochemistry. Academic, London, 1982.

33.   Shahbudin S, Taher M, Deny S, Haitham Q, Anis. In vitro antimicrobial activity of antimicrobial plant Sonneratia alba. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2012; 2:427–429

34.   Feller IC, Lovelock CE, Berger U, McKee KL, Joye SB, Ball MC. Biocomplexity in mangrove ecosystems. Annu Rev Mar Sci 2010; 2:395-417.

35.   Singh CR, and Kathiresan K. Effect of cigarette smoking on human health and promising remedy by mangroves. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 5:162-167.

36.   Chinnappan R, Kandasamy K. Cigarette smoking effect on human health and promising remedy by mangroves. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2012; 1:1-6.

37.   Chen L, Deng H, Cui H, Fang J, Zuo Z, Deng J, Zhao L. Inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases in organs. Oncotarget, 2017; 9:7204-7218.

38.   Rahman MA, Haque E, Hasanuzzaman M, and Shahid IZ. Antinociceptive, antiinflammatory and antibacterial properties of Tamarix indica roots. Int J Pharmacol 2011; 7:527–531.

39.   Srivastav S, Singh P, Mishra G, Jha KK, and Khosa RL. Achyranthes aspera-An important medicinal plant: A review. J Nat Prod Plant Resour 2011; 1:1-14.

40.   Kaushik U Lachake P Shreedhara CS and Ram HA. In-Vitro Antioxidant Activity of Extracts of Avipattikar Churna. Pharmacology online 2009; 3:581-589.

41.   Habib MA, Khatun F, khatun Ruma M, Kabir AH, Chowdhury AR S, Rahman A, and Hossain MI. A Review On Phytochemical Constituents of Pharmaceutically Important Mangrove Plants, Their Medicinal Uses and Pharmacological Activities. VRI Phytomedicine 2018; 6:1-6.

42.   Biswas R, Dutta PK, Achari B, Bandyopadhyay D, Mishra M, Pramanik KC, Chatterjee TK. Isolation of pure compound R/J/3 from Pluchea indica (L.) Less. and its anti-amoebic activities against Entamoeba histolytica. Phytom 2007; 14:534-537.

43.   Sagnia B, Fedeli D, Casetti R, Montesano C, Falcioni G, Colizzi V. Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Extracts from Cassia alata, Eleusine indica, Eremomastax speciosa, Carica papaya and Polyscias fulva Medicinal Plants Collected in Cameroon. PLOS ONE. 9: e103999. 2014.

44.   Liu T, Zhang L, Joo D, and Sun SC. NF-κB signaling in inflammation. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2017; 2:1-9.

45.   Newton K, Dixit VM. Signaling in innate immunity and inflammation. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2012; 4:1-19.

46.    Mogensen TH. Pathogen recognition and inflammatory signaling in innate immune defenses. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009; 22:40-273.

47.   Sun SC, Chang JH, Jin, J. Regulation of nuclear factor-kappaB in autoimmunity. Trends Immunol 2013; 34:282-289.

48.   Ghosh S and Karin M. Missing pieces in the NF-kappaB puzzle. Cell 2002; 109: S81-S96.

49.   Hayden MS, Ghosh S. NF-kappaB in immunobiology. Cell Res 2011; 21:223-244.

50.   Huang Z, Cai X, Shao C, She Z, Xia X, Chen Y, Yan J., Zhou S, Lin Y. Chemistry and weak antimicrobial activities of phomopsins produced by mangrove endophytic fungus Phomopsis sp. ZSU-H76. Phytochem 2008; 69:1604-1608.

51.   Lu YC, Yeh WC, Ohashi PS. LPS/TLR4 signal transduction pathway. Cytokine 2008; 42:145-151.

52.   Gohda J, Matsumura T, Inoue J. Cutting edge: TNFR-associated factor (TRAF) 6 is essential for MyD88-dependent pathway but not toll/IL-1 receptor domain containing adaptor-inducing IFN-beta (TRIF)-dependent pathway in TLR signaling. J Immunol 2004; 173: 2913-2917.

53.   Murphy KM. Janeway’s Immunobiology, 8th edn. Garland, 2010.

54.   O'Shea JJ, Paul WE. Mechanisms underlying lineage commitment and plasticity of helper CD4+ T cells. Science 2010; 327:1098-1102.

55.   Wang N, Liang H, Zen K (2014) Molecular mechanisms that influence the macrophage m1-m2 polarization balance. Front Immunol 2014; 5:614.

56.   Sica A, Mantovani A. Macrophage plasticity and polarization: in vivo veritas. J Clin Invest 2012; 122:787-795.

57.   Mosser DM. The many faces of macrophage activation. J Leukoc Biol 2003; 73:209-212.

58.   Balakrishnan A, and Graves SC. A composite algorithm for a concave‐cost network flow problem. Networks 1989; 19:175-202.

59.   Andrews HV and Sankaran V. Sustainable management of protected areas in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andaman and Nicobar Islands environmental team. Indian Institute of Public Administration, and Fauna and Flora International, New Delhi, 2002.

60.   Sachithanandam V, Mageswaran T, Ragavan P, Mahapatra M, Sridhar R, Ramesh R and Mohan PM. Mangrove regeneration in tsunami affected area of north and south Andaman using insitu and remote sensing techniques. IJMS 2014; 43:1061-1067

61.   Dam Roy S. A Compendium on mangrove biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Shri Vignesh Prints, Chennai 196, 2003.

62.   Jain K, Afidah AR, Azman IM. Anti-corrosive performance of wash primer based on mangrove tannin. Proceedings of the 15^th Symposium of Malaysian Chemical Engineering, September 11-12, UTM, Malaysia, 2002; 323-327.

63.   Prabhu V, and Guruvayoorappan C. Anti-inflammatory and antitumor activity of the marine mangrove Rhizophora apiculata, J Immunotoxicol 2012; 9:341-352.

64.   Krishnamoorthy M, Saikumar JM, Shama R, Pandiaraja C, Sofia P, Nagarajan. Antioxidant activities of bark extract from mangroves, Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume and Ceriops decandra Perr. Indian J Pharmacol 2010; 43:557-582.

65.   Kumar MS, Gorain B, Roy DK, et al., Anti-inflammatory activity of Acanthus ilicifolius, J Ethnopharmacol; 2008; 120:7-12.

66.   Chakraborty K, Krishna Raola V. Two rare antioxidant and anti-inflammatory oleanenes from loop root Asiatic mangrove Rhizophora mucronata. Phytochem 2017; 135:160-165.

67.   Raola VK, and Chakraborty K. Two rare antioxidative prenylated terpenoids from loop-root Asiatic mangrove Rhizophora mucronata (Family Rhizophoraceae) and their activity against pro-inflammatory cyclooxygenases and lipoxidase. Nat Prod Res 2017; 31:1-10.

68.   Rohini RM and Amit Kumar Das. A comparative evaluation of a algesic a d anti- flammatory activities of Rhizophora mucroata bark extracts. Pharmacologyonline 2009; 1:780-791.

69.   Babuselvam M, Ravikumar S, Mohamed Farook KA, Abideen S, Peer Mohamed M, and Uthiraselvam M. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects on the extracts of different parts of Excoecaria agallocha L. J Appl Pharm Sci 2012; 2:108-112.

70.   Kumari SC, Yasmin N, Raffiq Hussain M and Babuselvam M. Invitro anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic property of Rhizopora mucronata leaves. Intern J Pharma Scie Res 2015; 6:482-485.

71.   Gawali P, Jadhav BL, and Ramteke L. Comparative studies on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of ethanolic extracts of true mangrove and mangrove associate located in bhatye beach areas of maharashtra, india. Int. J Pharm Sci Rev Res 2017; 8:124-130.

72.   Ray M, Adhikari A, Tapas K. Sur, Besra, SE, Biswas S, Das AK. Evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of ethanolic extract of the leaves of Rhizophora mucronata, a sunderban mangrove. Inter J Res Develop Pharm Life Scien (2016); 6:2506-2516.

73.   Vijayaraj R, Dinesh Kumar G, Sri Kumaran, N. In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of silver nanoparticle synthesized Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.: A green synthetic approach. Intern J G Pharm 2018; 12: S528.

74.   Baskaran R and Mohan PM. In vitro antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of Rhizophora mucronata L. against multi drug resistant Vibrio spp. isolated from marine water Lobster’s larvae hatcheries. IJMS 2012; 41:218-222.

75.   Chander MP, Sachithanandam V and Vijayachari P. Antimicrobial and Hemolytic activity of seaweed Padina gymnospora from South Andaman, Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 2014; 3:364-369

76.   Geetha I and Manonmani AM. Surfactin: a novel mosquitocidal biosurfactant produced by Bacillus subtilis sp. (VCRC B471) and influence of abiotic factors on its pupicidal efficacy. Letter Appl Micro 2010; 51:406-412.

77.   Suman T, Kaleeswaran B, Immanuel T, Dam Roy S and Krishnan P. Antibacterial Activity of Pseudoceratina purpurea- A Marine Sponge from Andaman. Research J Pharm Tech 2013; 6:544-549.

78.   Meena B, Rajan LA, Vinithkumar NV and Kirubagaran. Novel marine actinobacteria from emerald Andaman and Nicobar Islands: a prospective sourcefor industrial and pharmaceutical by products. BMC Microbiol 2013; 13:145-162.

79.   Krishnan P, Veeramani S, Damroy S, et al. Antimicrobial Activity of Ircinia sp; a Marine Sponge and Its Associated Bacteria from Andaman Coast. Adv Animal Vet Sci 2014; 2: 37-41.

80.   Thirunavukkarasu P, Ramanathan T, Ramkumar L, Shanmugapriya R, and Renugadevi G. The antioxidant and free radical scavenging effect of Avicennia officinalis. J Med Plants Res 2011; 5:4754-4758.

81.   Bakshi M and Chaudhuri P. Antimicrobial potential of leaf extracts of ten mangrove species from Indian Sundarban. Int J Pharm Bio Sci 2014; 5:294-304.

82.   Sura S, Anbu J, Sultan MAD, and Uma BM. Antiulcer effect of ethanolic leaf extract of Avicennia officinalis. Pharmacologyonline 2011; 3:12-19.

83.   Sumithra M, Anbu J, Nithya S, and Ravichandiran V. Anticancer activity of methanolic leaves extract of Avicennia officinalis on ehrlich ascitis carcinoma cell lines in rodents. Int J Pharm Tech Res 2011; 3:1290–292

84.   A Rege A, Y Ambaye R, and A Deshmukh R. In-vitro testing of anti-HIV activity of some medicinal plants. Indian J Nat Prod Resour 2010; 1:193-199.

85.   Sharief MN, and Umamaheswararao V. Antibacterial activity of stem and root extracts of Avicennia officinalis L. Int J Pharm App 2011; 2:231-236.

86.   Hossain ML. Medicinal activity of Avicennia officinalis: Evaluation of phytochemical and pharmacological properties. Saudi J Med Pharm Sci 2016; 2:250-255.

87.   Joel EL and Bhimba V. Isolation and characterization of secondary metabolites from the mangrove plant Rhizophora mucronata. Asian Pac J Trop Med 2010; 3:602–604.

88.   Kusuma S, Anil Kumar P, and Boopalan K. Potent antimicrobial activity of Rhizophora mucronata. J Ecobiotechnol 2011; 3:40-41.

89.   Sur TK, Hazra A, Hazra AK, and Bhattacharyya D. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties of Indian Sunderban mangrove Bruguiera gymnorrhiza L. leave. J Basic Clin Pharm 2016; 7:75.

90.   Ramanathan TAH. In Studies on Analgesic Activity of a Mangrove Species—Rhizophora mucronata Poir. In Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Advances in Biotechnology (Biotech 2011), Bozen, Italy, 12-13, 2011.

91.   Nurdiani R, Firdaus M, and Prihanto AA. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of methanol extract of mangrove plant (Rhizophora mucronata) from Porong River Estuary. J Basic Science Techn 2012; 1:27-29.

92.   Premanathan M, Nokashima H, Kathiresan K, Rajendran N, and Yamamoto N. In vitro anti human immunodeficiency virus activity of mangrove plants. Indian J Med Res 1996; 103:278-281.

93.   Suganthy N, and Pandima Devi K. In vitro antioxidant and anti-cholinesterase activities of Rhizophora mucronata. Pharm Biol 2016; 54:118-129.

94.   Jadhav RN and Jadhav BL. Evaluation of Antimicrobial principles of Rhizophora species along Mumbai Coast. J Adv Sci Res 2012; 3:30-33.

95.   Wahyuni WT, Darusman, LK and Surya NK. Potency of Rhizopora sp. Extracts as Antioxidant and Inhibitor of Acetylcholinesterase. Procedia Chem 2015; 16:681-686.

96.   Hardoko ES, Puspitasari YE, and Amalia R. Study of ripe Rhizophora mucronata fruit flour as functional food for antidiabetic. Int Food Res J 2015; 22:953-959.

97.   Pandey AK, Gupta PP, and Lal VK. Hypoglycemic effect of Rhizophora mucronata in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. J Complement Integr Med 2014; 11:179–183.

98.   Raju G S, RahmanMoghal MM, Hossain MS, Hassan MM, Billah MM, Ahamed SK and Rana SM. Assessment of pharmacological activities of two medicinal plant of Bangladesh: Launaea sarmentosa and Aegialitis rotundifolia roxb in the management of pain, pyrexia and inflammation. Biolog Res 2014; 47:1-11.

99.   Reddy ARK and Grace JR. Anticancer activity of methanolic extracts of selected mangrove plants. Int J Pharm Sci Res 2016; 7: 3852.

100.Hasan I, Hussain MS, Millat MS, Sen N, Rahman MA, Rahman MA., and Moghal MM. Ascertainment of pharmacological activities of Allamanda neriifolia hook and Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb used in Bangladesh: an in vitro study. J Tradit Complement Med 2018; 8:107-112.

101.Premanathan M, Arakaki R, Izumi H, Kathiresan K, Nakano M, Yamamoto N, and Nakashima H. Antiviral properties of a mangrove plant, Rhizophora apiculata Blume, against human immunodeficiency virus. Antiviral Res 1999; 44:113–122.

102.Shafie, M., Forghani, A., and Moshtaghiyan J. Anti-inflammatory effects of hydro-alcoholic extracts of mangrove (Avicennia marina) and vitamin C on arthritic rats. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci, 203; 2:32-37.

103.Rout P, and Basak UC. Antioxidant Properties in Leaf and Root Extracts of Some Medicinally Important Mangrove Species of Odisha Coast. American J PharmTech Res 2012; 4:1-13.

104.Afidah AR, Emmanuel R, Jein, S, Jain MK, Sani MI, Hasnah O. Antioxidant activities of mangrove Rhizophora apiculata bark extracts. Food Chem 2008; 107:200-207.

105.Karami L, Majd A, Mehrabian S, Nabiuni M, Salehi M, and Irian S. Antimutagenic and anticancer effects of Avicennia marina leaf extract on Salmonella typhimurium TA100 bacterium and human promyelocytic leukaemia HL-60 cells. Sci Asia 2012; 38:349-355.

106.Al Maqtari Maher A. Screening of Salt-stress, antioxidant enzyme, and antimicrobial activity of leave extracts of mangroves Avicennia marina L. from Hodaidah, Yemen. J Stress Physiol Biochem 2014; 10:190-199.

107.Gawali poonam and Jadhav BL. Antioxidant activity and antioxidant phytochemical analysis of mangrove species Sonneratia alba and Bruguiera cylindrica. Asian J Microbiol Biotechnol Environ Sci 2011; 13:257-261.

108.Rahmatullah M, Jahan N, Chowdhury MH, Jahan R, and Nasrin, D.  Brine shrimp toxicity study of different Bangladeshi medicinal plants. Adv Nat Appl Scien, 2010; 4:163–173.

109.Hossain MA, Panthi S, Asadujjaman M, Khan SR, Ferdous F, and Sadhu SK. Phytochemical and pharmacological assessment of the ethanol leaves extract of Heritiera fomes Buch. Ham. (Family- Sterculiaceae)”. J Porphyrins Phthalocyanines 2013; 2:95–101

110.Mahmud I, Islam MK, Saha S, Barman AK, Rahman MM, Anisuzzman, M., and Rahmatullah, M. Pharmacological and ethnomedicinal overview of Heritiera fomes: future prospects. Int Sch Res Notices 2014; 1-12.

111.Roome T, Dar A, Naqvi S, Ali S, and Choudhary MI. Aegiceras corniculatum extract suppresses initial and late phases of inflammation in rat paw and attenuates the production of eicosanoids in rat neutrophils and human platelets. J Ethnopharmacol 2008; 120:248-254.

112.Roome T, Dar A, Naqvi S, and Choudhary MI. Evaluation of antinociceptive effect of Aegiceras corniculatum stems extracts and its possible mechanism of action in rodents. J Ethnopharmacol, 2011; 135:351-358.

113.Janmanchi H, Raju A, Degani MS, Ray MK, and Rajan, MGR (2017) Antituberculosis, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of Aegiceras corniculatum, a mangrove plant and effect of various extraction processes on its phytoconstituents and bioactivity. S Afr J Bot 2017; 113:421-427.

114.Mondal S, Ghosh D, and Ramakrishna K. A complete profile on blind-your-eye mangrove Excoecaria agallocha L.(Euphorbiaceae): Ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and pharmacological aspects. Pharmacogn Rev 2016; 10:123.

115.Simlai A and Roy A. Biological activities and chemical constituents of some mangrove species from Sundarban estuary: An overview. Pharmacognosy reviews 2013; 7:170.

116.Das SK, Samantaray D, and Thatoi H. Ethnomedicinal, antimicrobial and antidiarrhoeal studies on the mangrove plants of the genus Xylocarpus: a mini review. J Bioanal Biomed 2014; 12:1-7.

117.Paul T and Ramasubbu S. The antioxidant, anticancer and anticoagulant activities of Acanthus ilicifolius L. roots and Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. leaves, from southeast coast of India. J Appl Pharm Sci 2017; 7:081-087.

118.Gao M, and Xiao H. Activity-guided isolation of antioxidant compounds from Rhizophora apiculata. Molecule 2012; 17:10675-10682.

119.Lim SH, Darah I, and Jain K. Antimicrobial activities of tannins extracted from Rhizophora apiculata barks. J Trop For Sci 2006; 18:59-65.

120. Thomas T. In vitro evaluation of antibacterial activity of Acrostichum aureum Linn Indian J Nat Prod Resour 2012; 3:135-138.

121.Abeysinghe PD. Antibacterial activity of some medicinal mangroves against antibiotic resistant pathogenic bacteria. Indian J Pharm Sci, 2010; 72:167.

122.Wang Y, Zhu H, and Tam NFY. Polyphenols, tannins and antioxidant activities of eight true mangrove plant species in South China. Plant and soil 2014; 374:549-563.

123.Wei SD, Zhou HC, and Lin YM. Antioxidant activities of extract and fractions from the hypocotyls of the mangrove plant Kandelia candel. Int J Mol Sci 2010; 11:4080-4093.

124.Bunyapraphatsara N, Jutiviboonsuk A, Sornlek P, Therathanathorn W, Aksornkaew S, Fong H H., Kosmeder, J. Pharmacological studies of plants in the mangrove forest. Thai J Pharmacol 2003; 10:1-12.

125.Angalabiri-Owei BE and Isirima, JC. Evaluation of the lethal dose of the methanol extract of Rhizophora racemosa leaf using Karbers method. Afr J Cell Path 2014; 2:65–68.

126.Laupattarakasem P, Houghton PJ and Hoult JRS. Anti-inflammatory isoflavonoids from the stems of Derris scandens. Planta medica 2004; 70:496-501.

127.Pongprayoon U, Bohlin L, Soonthornsaratune P, and Wasuwat, S. Anti-inflammatory activity of Ipomoea pes‐caprae (L.) R. Br. Phytother Res 1991; 5:63-66.

128.Li Y, Liu J, Yu S, Proksch P, Gu J, and Lin W. TNF-α inhibitory diterpenoids from the Chinese mangrove plant Excoecaria agallocha L. Phytochem 2010; 71:2124-2131.

129.Tewtrakul S, Tansakul P, Daengrot C, Ponglimanon C, and Karalai C. Anti-inflammatory principles from Heritiera littoralis bark. Phytomedicine 2010; 17:851-855.

130.Singh RK, Joshi VK, Goel RV, Gambhir SS, and Achaiya SB. Pharmacological actions of Pongamia pinnata seeds—a preliminary study, Indian J Exp Biol 1996; 34:1204-1207.

131.Muruganandan S, Srinivasan K, Tandan SK, Lal J, Chandra S, and Raviprakash, V “Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of some medicinal plants, ” J Med Plants Res 2000; 22:56-58.

132.Srinivasan K, Muruganandan S, Lal J, et al., Antinociceptive and antipyretic activities of Pongamia pinnata leaves. Phytother Res 2003; 17:259-264.

133.Ganapaty S, Josaphine JS and Thomas PS. Anti-Inflammatory activity of Derris scandens. J Nat Remedies 2006; 6:73-76.

134.Behbahani M, Shanehsazzadeh M, and Hessami MJ. Optimization of callus and cell suspension cultures of Barringtonia racemosa (Lecythidaceae family) for lycopene production. Scientia Agricola, 2011; 68:69-76.

135.Yodsaoue O, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C, Tewtrakul S, and Chantrapromma, S. Potential anti-inflammatory diterpenoids from the roots of Caesalpinia mimosoides Lamk. Phytochem 2010; 71:1756-1764.

136.Paula ACB, Hayashi LSS, and Freitas JCD. Anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic activity of Ipomoea imperati (Vahl) Griseb (Convolvulaceae). Braz J Med Biol Res, 2003; 36:105-112.

 

 

 

Received on 22.10.2019         Accepted on 20.11.2019

© Asian Pharma Press All Right Reserved

Asian J. Pharm. Res. 2019; 9(4):273-288.

DOI: 10.5958/2231-5691.2019.00045.5